Nayib Bukele sworn in for second term as civic space conditions deteriorated

Introduction

Nayib Bukele begins second term amid warnings of democratic backsliding

On 1st June 2024, President Nayib Bukele was sworn in for a second five-year term, following his victory in the February 2024 election with 85 per cent of the vote. While supporters portray him as a leader who restored public order with populist-punitive security policies, civil society organisations and human rights defenders have criticised his governance as a threat to constitutional democracy. Bukele enters his new term with near-total control over state institutions.

Legal scholars and international observers have widely deemed his re-election unconstitutional. A 2021 ruling by the Constitutional Court—installed after the Legislative Assembly, dominated by Bukele’s allies, removed all five sitting magistrates and replaced them with loyalists—enabled his candidacy by overturning the constitutional prohibition on successive presidential terms. The move marked a critical erosion of judicial independence.

Human rights organisations have consistently raised concerns over the undue restrictions on fundamental freedoms. Since the declaration of the state of emergency in late March 2022—ostensibly to address gang-related violence, and repeatedly renewed—authorities have escalated repressive measures. As of February 2024, Salvadorean civil society organisations have documented 327 cases of enforced disappearance and over 78,000 arbitrary detentions.

The total number of people currently deprived of liberty stands at approximately 102,000, while prison overcrowding has reached 148 per cent. At least 235 individuals have died in state custody. This context has also heightened risks for human rights defenders and other dissenting voices, who face increasing criminalisation. Local organisations have reported 34 such cases.

Association

Mother searching for missing daughter detained, faces unlawful association charges

On 11th March 2024, police authorities arbitrarily detained human rights defender Verónica Delgado at her home in Lourdes, Colón. Although a judge ordered her provisional release under alternative measures on 22nd March 2024, she remained in custody until 3rd April 2024. She faces alleged charges of “unlawful association”.

She is a member of the Search Block (Bloque de Búsqueda), a collective of women searching for relatives who disappeared during the ongoing state of exception. Delgado advocates for the rights to truth, justice and reparation in connection with the enforced disappearance of her daughter, Paola Jimena Arana, who went missing on 26th May 2022 at the age of 17, after leaving home for a medical appointment and failing to return.

Under the current state of emergency, mothers and relatives of the disappeared have played a central role in defending victims’ rights. Some have reported facing stigmatisation and criminalisation, including baseless accusations of gang affiliation and the targeting of civil society organisations supporting their efforts, often labelled as “defenders of criminals.”

Human rights defender placed under surveillance

In February 2024, Ivania Cruz, spokesperson for the Committee of Families of Political Prisoners in El Salvador (COFAPPES), received official confirmation that she had been placed under state surveillance. A report issued by the Office of the Attorney General included images sourced from her personal Facebook profile, along with photographs of her participation in public demonstrations and other human rights-related activities.

The disclosure, which Cruz described as deeply alarming, has reinforced mounting fears among Salvadoran civil society that surveillance and intimidation are being systematically deployed against those who speak out against President Nayib Bukele’s government. Cruz, a prominent advocate for families affected by El Salvador’s ongoing state of emergency, has long criticised arbitrary detentions and the erosion of due process.

Moreover, five national organisations—COFAPPES, the Movement of Victims of the Regime (MOVIR), Humanitarian Legal Aid (Socorro Jurídico Humanitario), the “Herbert Anaya Sanabria” Human Rights Collective, and the Committee of Relatives of Victims of the State of Exception of the Bajo Lempa—held a joint press conference. They condemned the use of surveillance against defenders and reported increased police interference in protests, online harassment and covert intelligence agents posing as journalists at public events.

In response, 84 civil society organisations issued a joint statement denouncing the alleged misuse of state resources to surveillance of human rights defenders. The statement described these actions as incompatible with El Salvador’s constitutional framework and international human rights obligations. It called on the Office of the Attorney General to initiate an impartial, independent and transparent investigation into the reported surveillance and acts of intimidation.

International court condemns El Salvador for decades of impunity in disappearance of human rights defender

On 18th March 2024, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights found El Salvador internationally responsible for the enforced disappearances of Patricia Emilie Cuéllar Sandoval, Mauricio Cuéllar Cuéllar and Julia Orbelina Pérez. The Court held that the disappearance of Cuéllar Sandoval also violated her right to defend human rights.

The Court concluded that, more than four decades after the events, the victims remained disappeared and no one had been held accountable. This ongoing impunity breached the rights to judicial guarantees, judicial protection and access to the truth, affecting both the victims and their families.

According to the ruling, Cuéllar Sandoval had been involved in human rights work since 1975, including as secretary of the Christian Legal Aid Office. She faced repeated threats and surveillance, and the day before her disappearance she reported persecution by security agents in plain clothes. The Court found that her disappearance was linked to her human rights work, and that the threats and harassment she faced violated her rights to freedom of expression and association.

The Court found that the disappearances seriously affected the families, particularly Cuéllar Sandoval’s children, who were minors at the time. The Salvadorean state violated their rights to personal integrity, family life and special protection. Although El Salvador partially acknowledged responsibility, it admitted prolonged inaction in the investigations. The Court ordered reparation measures, including continuing the investigations, public acknowledgment, institutional reforms, psychosocial support, training with a gender and intersectional perspective, education on past violations, and compensation.

Expression

Journalists targeted during presidential elections

A wave of targeted attacks against journalists and media outlets marred El Salvador’s general elections on 4th February 2024. The Association of Journalists of El Salvador (Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador, APES) documented at least 173 violations against journalists during the electoral period, including a spike in digital harassment, censorship and intimidation, particularly concentrated in the capital.

Social media platforms played a central role, with X emerging as the most frequently used medium for online attacks, with 62 incidents traced to the platform, followed by Facebook and WhatsApp.

Public officials were identified as the main perpetrators in 59 of the recorded cases. One particularly illustrative incident involved Vice-President Félix Ulloa, who on election day published a post accusing several national and international media outlets and civil society organisations of acting as political adversaries:

“The upcoming elections are taking place in a context where the political opposition is considered largely ineffective. In their absence, certain media outlets and civil society organisations have taken on a critical role towards President Bukele’s administration. These include El Diario de Hoy, La Prensa Gráfica, El Colatino, TVX, El Faro, Cristosal and FESPAD. Internationally, outlets such as El País (Spain), Le Monde, France 24, Deutsche Welle, and The Economist have published critical coverage. In the United States, The New York Times, The Washington Post, CNN en Español, and Human Rights Watch, among others, have also voiced concerns, along with some members of Congress.”

Angélica Cárcamo, president of APES, condemned the Vice-President’s statement as emblematic of a broader strategy to discredit independent voices while publicly claiming to respect freedom of expression. “This kind of rhetoric not only undermines journalists’ credibility but also places them at greater risk,” Cárcamo stated. “It is incompatible with democratic guarantees of press freedom.”

Court dismisses rectification case against journalist

On 3rd May 2024, the private company Desarrollos Agua Caliente, S.A. de C.V., based in El Salvador, filed a request for rectification and reply against journalist Carolina Amaya, director of the digital outlet MalaYerba. The request followed the publication of an investigative report on 11th April 2024, entitled “Esta es la impunidad con la que se construye en el lago de Coatepeque”. Prior to publication, MalaYerba had contacted the company on multiple occasions to obtain its comments, but received no response. According to Amaya’s statement to the Monitoring Centre of the APES, the report drew upon both documentary and oral sources.

During the proceedings, Amaya, who was abroad at the time, requested an extension of procedural deadlines to allow her legal representatives to act on her behalf. She submitted documentation evidencing delays in the transmission of powers of attorney. However, on 28th June 2024, the Ninth Court of Peace in San Salvador denied the request and scheduled a hearing on evidence submission and judgment for 3rd July 2024. The legal representative of Desarrollos Agua Caliente failed to attend the hearing, despite notification on 1st July 2024. The court consequently declared the hearing null and void, deemed the request for rectification withdrawn, and ordered

Peaceful Assembly

Police attempt to disrupt LGBTQI+ rights march in San Salvador

On 18th March 2024, dozens gathered in El Salvador’s capital to mark the International Day Against Homophobia, Lesbophobia, Biphobia and Transphobia, renewing calls for comprehensive protections for LGBTQI+ persons and an end to discriminatory laws and practices.

Participants convened at Plaza Salvador del Mundo, holding placards and chanting in support of equal rights and recognition. The demonstration, organised by a coalition of LGBTQI+ rights groups, aimed to draw attention to the persistent legal and institutional gaps that leave lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer and intersex people vulnerable to violence, exclusion and discrimination.

Organisers demanded the establishment of robust legal frameworks to guarantee the rights of LGBTQI+ persons, including the resumption of parliamentary debate on the draft Gender Identity Law. The bill, originally introduced in previous legislative cycles, would recognise the right to self-determined gender identity and facilitate access to legal documents aligned with people’s lived identities. They also urged lawmakers to repeal legislation and administrative policies that discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression.

However, activists reported that members of the Metropolitan Police Force (Cuerpo de Agentes Metropolitanos, CAM) allegedly attempted to remove protesters from the plaza before the march proceeded peacefully toward Parque Cuscatlán. While no injuries or detentions were reported, the incident was condemned by civil society organisations.